By Mark Peterson
The process by which Korea came to be the "most-Confucianized" country in the world was a long, drawn-out process that requires careful observation and careful definitions of terms.
Confucianism, as an alien ideology, came into Korea from China in the Three Kingdoms Period. Its introduction was not as dramatic, nor as successful as was that of Buddhism ― Buddhism had many more adherents in the early days. But gradually, over the centuries, Confucianism grew until, with the founding of the Joseon Kingdom in 1392, Confucianism was the ideology openly advocated by the new rulers.
Confucianism is good for rulers. It is mainly a set of "governing" principles and is concerned with engendering a happy and harmonious society. Confucianism is concerned with the here-and-now, unlike Buddhism that is focused on the next life. Confucianism is not much concerned with a god or with heaven; it is society and government in the present that is most important. If Confucius had had a name card printed up for himself, on the line where it would say one's position (president, CEO, chairman, etc.), his would likely have said "political consultant," or "moral advisor," or "social critic." It would not have said "religious leader" or "God's spokesman." Confucius himself, as well as his followers, was concerned with creating a good social order with good governance.
Like all great religions, there lies therein great contradictions. Confucius was asked about "spirits" and he said, "Stay away from spirits" ― implying to stay away from spiritual worship and rituals. Yet, the primary ritual in Confucianism is the offering of a sacrifice to ancestors. The ancestors had been assumed to have gone on to another place, a heaven perhaps. But when Confucius was asked about the next life, he said to pay attention first (and last and always) to this life. Therefore, Confucianism is called a "this worldly" religion (and there are those who quickly add that it's more of a philosophy than a religion), whereas Buddhism is called an "other worldly" religion.
Confucianism came with its own baggage. The society in which Confucius lived was one where inheritance, and all the family practices that came with it, were governed by the rule of primogeniture. In other words, the eldest son played a major role, sometimes the only role, in social behavior ― in Confucianism this included the hosting and conducting of ancestor ceremonies. Such a society was male dominant in many ways, such as where marriages were held and in which household the newlyweds would live ― the husband's house, and that of his father and sometimes grandfather.
When Confucianism came to Korea, it found a completely different setting. Korean society, unlike Confucius' Chinese society, was not male-dominant. Inheritances were divided equally between sons and daughters. Marriages and the place where the newlyweds would live, was not pre-determined to be that of the husband's house and that of his father, but rather marriages could be held at either the husband's house or the wife's house, and the newlywed couple could live at either place, according to which was better on a number of criteria ― sometimes the wife's house was better suited for the couple, sometimes the husband's house was better.
When Confucianism first came to Korea in the Three Kingdoms Period, Korea made all kinds of accommodations and in effect, created "Korean-style Confucianism." Ancestor ceremonies were not hosted by the eldest son, but rather all sons, and even the daughters, took turns hosting the ceremonies.
As an American, I can understand that. When we have holidays in America, we go to different houses to celebrate ― sometimes to an aunt's house, sometimes to an uncle's, sometimes on the father's side, sometimes on the mother's side. We don't have ancestor ceremonies, but we have family celebrations and the place they are held is in a kind of rotation.
In Korea, they had a word for hosting the ceremonies in rotation, it was yunhaeng (윤행). When, in the late 17th century, families began to accept patrlilinealism (부계), male dominance, they began to write in their inheritance documents, that the largest share was going to the eldest son, for he had to take responsibility for the ceremonies, and no longer would "yunhaeng," or taking turns in rotation, be acceptable.
There was a sea change. It affected inheritance and ancestor ceremonies, but it also affected marriage practices, residence practices, and even the recording of the genealogical tables changed ― in all these areas women were either left out, or started to play a greatly diminished role.
That this all happened is knowable. It is not a mystery. There was a full-scale acceptance of Confucian ideology, whereas prior to this, Korean Confucianism was just that ― a Korean version of Confucianism, without all the features of male dominance. This is a documentable, knowable fact. There is no mystery about when Korea fully immersed in Confucian practice.
The mystery is why this is not taught in schools? Why is it not in the textbooks?
Mark Peterson (markpeterson@byu.edu) is professor emeritus of Korean, Asian and Near Eastern languages at Brigham Young University in Utah.
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Confucianism, as an alien ideology, came into Korea from China in the Three Kingdoms Period. Its introduction was not as dramatic, nor as successful as was that of Buddhism ― Buddhism had many more adherents in the early days. But gradually, over the centuries, Confucianism grew until, with the founding of the Joseon Kingdom in 1392, Confucianism was the ideology openly advocated by the new rulers.
Confucianism is good for rulers. It is mainly a set of "governing" principles and is concerned with engendering a happy and harmonious society. Confucianism is concerned with the here-and-now, unlike Buddhism that is focused on the next life. Confucianism is not much concerned with a god or with heaven; it is society and government in the present that is most important. If Confucius had had a name card printed up for himself, on the line where it would say one's position (president, CEO, chairman, etc.), his would likely have said "political consultant," or "moral advisor," or "social critic." It would not have said "religious leader" or "God's spokesman." Confucius himself, as well as his followers, was concerned with creating a good social order with good governance.
Like all great religions, there lies therein great contradictions. Confucius was asked about "spirits" and he said, "Stay away from spirits" ― implying to stay away from spiritual worship and rituals. Yet, the primary ritual in Confucianism is the offering of a sacrifice to ancestors. The ancestors had been assumed to have gone on to another place, a heaven perhaps. But when Confucius was asked about the next life, he said to pay attention first (and last and always) to this life. Therefore, Confucianism is called a "this worldly" religion (and there are those who quickly add that it's more of a philosophy than a religion), whereas Buddhism is called an "other worldly" religion.
Confucianism came with its own baggage. The society in which Confucius lived was one where inheritance, and all the family practices that came with it, were governed by the rule of primogeniture. In other words, the eldest son played a major role, sometimes the only role, in social behavior ― in Confucianism this included the hosting and conducting of ancestor ceremonies. Such a society was male dominant in many ways, such as where marriages were held and in which household the newlyweds would live ― the husband's house, and that of his father and sometimes grandfather.
When Confucianism came to Korea, it found a completely different setting. Korean society, unlike Confucius' Chinese society, was not male-dominant. Inheritances were divided equally between sons and daughters. Marriages and the place where the newlyweds would live, was not pre-determined to be that of the husband's house and that of his father, but rather marriages could be held at either the husband's house or the wife's house, and the newlywed couple could live at either place, according to which was better on a number of criteria ― sometimes the wife's house was better suited for the couple, sometimes the husband's house was better.
When Confucianism first came to Korea in the Three Kingdoms Period, Korea made all kinds of accommodations and in effect, created "Korean-style Confucianism." Ancestor ceremonies were not hosted by the eldest son, but rather all sons, and even the daughters, took turns hosting the ceremonies.
As an American, I can understand that. When we have holidays in America, we go to different houses to celebrate ― sometimes to an aunt's house, sometimes to an uncle's, sometimes on the father's side, sometimes on the mother's side. We don't have ancestor ceremonies, but we have family celebrations and the place they are held is in a kind of rotation.
In Korea, they had a word for hosting the ceremonies in rotation, it was yunhaeng (윤행). When, in the late 17th century, families began to accept patrlilinealism (부계), male dominance, they began to write in their inheritance documents, that the largest share was going to the eldest son, for he had to take responsibility for the ceremonies, and no longer would "yunhaeng," or taking turns in rotation, be acceptable.
There was a sea change. It affected inheritance and ancestor ceremonies, but it also affected marriage practices, residence practices, and even the recording of the genealogical tables changed ― in all these areas women were either left out, or started to play a greatly diminished role.
That this all happened is knowable. It is not a mystery. There was a full-scale acceptance of Confucian ideology, whereas prior to this, Korean Confucianism was just that ― a Korean version of Confucianism, without all the features of male dominance. This is a documentable, knowable fact. There is no mystery about when Korea fully immersed in Confucian practice.
The mystery is why this is not taught in schools? Why is it not in the textbooks?
Mark Peterson (markpeterson@byu.edu) is professor emeritus of Korean, Asian and Near Eastern languages at Brigham Young University in Utah.
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